Competitiveness of the Ready-Made Garment Industry in Bangladesh

The United States was the main export destination for Bangladeshi RMG products in the early 1990s followed by the European Union, but the European Union has surpassed the United States over time. These two destinations generate more than 90 per cent of the total RMG export earnings of Bangladesh (BGMEA and the Export Promotion Bureau websites; and Quddus and Rashid, 2000).

The shares of other importers, such as Australia, Canada, China, Japan and the Russian Federation as well as countries in the Middle East, in the total RMG export earnings of Bangladesh are minimal. This section of the paper focuses on surface-level competitive performance of the Bangladesh RMG industry in the United States and the European Union markets only. In addition, the performance of China and India along with Bangladesh as RMG suppliers to international markets is also considered for comparative analysis.

(a) Export Competitiveness in the United States Market
Bangladesh has experienced some product diversification in its export of garments to the United States market in recent years compared with the early 1990s.6 However, the country’s performance in upgrading its products is not significant with regard to the United States market (Haider, 2006). The country experienced a sharp increase in the export of garment products to the United States market in the 1990s, but faced declines in export earnings from that country in 2002 and 2003, followed by slow increases since 2004. The exports of India also increased rapidly in the 1990s, although that country experienced comparatively slow progress in the last few years. However, the RMG exports of China to the United States have increased at a startling rate over the years. For example, the textile and garment export earnings of China, India and Bangladesh from the United States were $3.6 billion, $0.8 billion and $0.4 billion respectively in 1990, and increased to $22.4 billion, $4.6 billion and $2.5 billion respectively in 2005. Such rapid expansion in the exports of China represents a major challenge to other exporters. Bangladesh exported a total of 99 types of products in the textile and garment category to the United States in 2005, but most of the category’s contribution was minimal. For India and China, the number of textile and garment product categories exported in the
same year to the United States was 161 and 167 respectively.

Category 340 (cotton non-knit shirts, man and boy) was the highest contributor to the export earnings of Bangladesh from the United States, amounting to $332 million in 2005. The export earnings of only eight categories8 crossed the $100 million export benchmark in the same year for the country. A total of 16 categories of exports crossed the $50 million benchmark and 31 categories crossed the $10 million export benchmark .

For India, the highest contributor was category 369 (miscellaneous cotton manufactures), accounting for $439 million in export earnings from the United States in 2005. Also in the same year, a total of 12, 20 and 56 categories crossed the $100 million, $50 million and $10 million export benchmarks respectively.

However, the scenario differed significantly for China. The highest contributor for China in the United States market was category 670 (man-made fibre flat goods/ handbags/luggage), which amounted to $2,066 million in 2005. In the same year, 9, 62, 78 and 124 categories crossed the $500 million, $100 million, $50 million and $10 million export benchmarks respectively.

The market of India seems to be more diversified compared with that of Bangladesh, and the market of China is significantly more diversified compared with that of Bangladesh or India. Figures 1 to 3 also indicate that the exports of Bangladesh are concentrated mainly in cotton or man-made fibre-related products. In contrast, the trade of China and India is diversified in all the fibre groups.

(b) Export Competitiveness in the European Union Market
Bangladesh has experienced both quantitative and qualitative changes in exporting garment products to the European Union market during the period 1996-2005. The textile and garment export earnings of Bangladesh from the European Union increased from 1.2 billion euros in 1996 to 3.7 billion euros in 2005. For India and China, the corresponding earnings increased from 3 billion and 5.3 billion euros in 1996 to 5.3 billion and 21.1 billion euros in 2005 respectively. Garment products generate the major share of Bangladesh’s export earnings from the European Union. However, both textile and garment products in China and India contribute to the export earnings from the European Union. For example, garment products on average generated more than a 95 per cent share of the total textile and garment exports to the European Union from Bangladesh during the period 1996-2005. The corresponding shares for India and China stand at below 75 per cent and 80-90 per cent respectively.

The top five product groups contributed 76 per cent of the total garment export earnings of Bangladesh from the European Union in 1996, and that share increased to 82 per cent in 2005. The corresponding changes for India and China were from shares of 62 per cent and 34 per cent in 1996 to 54 per cent and 45 per cent in 2005 respectively. This trend demonstrates that product diversification in Bangladesh is lower than that of
India and China in exporting garment products to the European Union market. Knit garments from Bangladesh have gained remarkable access to the European Union market during the period 1996-2005. Duty- and quota-free access of garment products manufactured under “two-stage local transformation” (yarn to fabrics, and fabrics to garment) have accelerated the exports of knit garment products from Bangladesh to the European Union. As the knit textile subsector is relatively less capital intensive and requires relatively simple technologies, it managed to undergo rapid expansion, benefiting from the European Union Generalized
System of Preferences. The woven part of the category has failed to utilize that facility owing to a lack of sufficient backward linkages. In contrast to the European Union, both knit and non-knit products have entered the United States market simultaneously, as no special tariff or tax reduction incentive was available there for the import of garment products from Bangladesh.

The product-mix of garment products exported from Bangladesh to the European Union has changed significantly during the period 1996-2005. The share of shirts in total garment exports from Bangladesh to the European Union has decreased, whereas the shares for overcoats, jackets, sweaters, suits and some other garment products have increased in recent years. These changes demonstrate that Bangladesh is achieving some level of product diversification in exporting garment products to the European Union. In addition, a gender analysis indicates that Bangladesh has achieved some upgrading of its products recently in terms of exporting garment products to the European Union. Garments for females are treated as upgraded products compared with garments for males, since they add more value on average. The earnings of Bangladesh from the export of garments for females to the European Union has increased during the period 1996-2005 (Haider, 2006).

(c) Price Competitiveness
China and some other competitors of Bangladesh have implemented sharp price-cutting policies in exporting garment products over the last few years, but Bangladesh has failed to respond effectively to such policies. China was able to drop the export price of 29 garment categories10 by 46 per cent11 on average in the United States within a year, from $6.23 per sq metre in December 2001 to $3.37 per sq metre in December 2002. However, all other suppliers were able to drop the price by only 2 per cent, from $3.50 per

sq metre to $3.41 per sq metre during the same period. By the end of 2002, China had underpriced all other exporters to the United States in 22 out of 29 garment categories and it had underpriced others in 26 out of 29 categories by March 2003 (American Textile Manufacturers Institute, 2003). Moreover, China rapidly managed to be price competitive in the European Union and other major international markets. For example, the average unit export price of garment products integrated in the third stage of the Multifibre

Arrangement phase-out decreased from 11,600 euros per ton in 2001 to 9,500 euros per ton in 2002 for Bangladesh in the European Union, whereas the corresponding decrease for China in that market was from 13,500 euros to 8,800 euros per ton (European Commission, 2003). Bangladesh needs to respond to such price-cutting policies of its rivals in order to remain competitive in the quota-free global market.

(d) Lead Time
Lead time refers to the time required for supplying the ordered garment products after the export order has been received. In the 1980s, the usual lead time in the garment industry was 120-150 days for the main garment supplier countries of the world; it has been reduced to 30-40 days in the current decade.12 However, in this regard the Bangladesh RMG industry has improved little; for example, the average lead time is 90-120 days for woven garment firms and 60-80 days for knit garment firms. In China, the average lead time is 40-60 days and 50-60 days for woven and knit products respectively; in India, it is 50-70 days and 60-70 days for the same products respectively.13 Shortening the lead time is the most urgent priority task for Bangladesh. The best way is to develop domestic backward linkages with the aim of reducing “production and distribution” time.14 Such a strategy would contribute to enhancing the deep-level performance of the industry and would have a positive impact on surface-level performance. An alternative solution would be to establish a central or common bonded warehouse in the private sector for storing raw materials usable in the export-oriented garment industry, with special incentives such as duty-free import. While such a solution is
the fastest way to improve surface-level competitiveness by reducing lead time, it carries the risk of delaying deep-level competitive performance-enhancing initiatives and the long-term development of the industry.

 

 

 

An Overview of the Bangladesh Ready-Made Garment Industry

The RMG industry is the only multi-billion-dollar manufacturing and export industry in Bangladesh. Whereas the industry contributed only 0.001 per cent to the country’s total export earnings in 1976, its share increased to about 75 per cent of those earnings in 2005. Bangladesh exported garments worth the equivalent of $6.9 billion in 2005, which was about 2.5 per cent of the global total value ($276 billion)

of garment exports. The country’s RMG industry grew by more than 15 per cent per annum on average during the last 15 years. The foreign exchange earnings and employment generation of the RMG sector have been increasing at double-digit rates from year to year.Some important issues related to the RMG industry of Bangladesh are noted in table 1.

Table 1. Important issues related to the Bangladesh ready-made garment industry

Year(s)                                   Issue

1977-1980                           Early period of growth

1982-1985                           Boom days

1985                                     Imposition of quota restrictions

1990s                                   Knitwear sector developed significantly

1993-1995                           Child labour issue and its solution

2003                                   Withdrawal of Canadian quota restriction

2005                                   Phase-out of export-quota system

Source: Compiled by the author from Quddus and Rashid (2000), Mainuddin (2000) and databases of the Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers and Exporters Association, and the Export Promotion Bureau, Bangladesh.

Currently, there are more than 4,000 RMG firms in Bangladesh. More than 95 per cent of those firms are locally owned with the exception of a few foreign firms located in export processing zones (Gonzales, 2002). The RMG firms are located mainly in three main cities: the capital city Dhaka, the port city Chittagong and the industrial city Narayangonj. Bangladesh RMG firms vary in size. Based on Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers and Exporters Association (BGMEA) data, Mainuddin (2000) found that in 1997 more than 75 per cent of the firms employed a maximum of 400 employees each. Garment companies in Bangladesh form formal or informal groups. The grouping helps to share manufacturing activities, to diversify risks; horizontal as well as vertical coordination can be easily found in such group activities.

Ready-made garments manufactured in Bangladesh are divided mainly into two broad categories: woven and knit products. Shirts, T-shirts and trousers are the main woven products and undergarments, socks, stockings, T-shirts, sweaters and other casual and soft garments are the main knit products. Woven garment products still dominate the garment export earnings of the country. The share of knit garment products has been increasing since the early 1990s; such products currently account for more than 40 per cent of the country’s total RMG export earnings (BGMEA website). Although various types of garments are manufactured in the country, only a few categories, such as shirts, T-shirts, trousers, jackets and sweaters, constitute the major production-share (BGMEA website; and Nath, 2001). Economies of scale for large-scale production and export-quota holdings in the corresponding categories are the principal reasons for such a narrow product
concentration.

The Future of the Textile Industry in Bangladesh

Future of the Textile Industry in Bangladesh:

The textile industry in Bangladesh has grown in an unplanned manner and a critical demand-supply gap has arisen for both yarn and fabric. The crisis will naturally deepen unless appropriate backward linkages, the incorporation of the fundamental steps in the textile industry all through to the RMG industry, can be built to meet the rapidly approaching challenges in the global textile market. As the population is growing and the standard of living is increasing in Bangladesh, the demand for textiles is increasing rapidly. This presents an urgent need to dramatically increase capacities in spinning, weaving, knitting, and dyeing, printing, and finishing sub-sectors. This will require the adoption of the most modern and appropriate technology to ensure quality products at competitive prices.

Garment Industry in Bangladesh

The possibility of increased yarn production in Bangladesh is an issue that has been looked into extensively by many researchers. These investigations have revealed the country actually has a comparative advantage over all competitors in terms of the expense of yarn production. However, in regards to the total yarn cost, Bangladesh’s advantage over India and Pakistan disappears, even though it remains competitive with other producers. This is essentially a result of the higher cost of raw materials in Bangladesh, as most need to be imported.

As can be seen in chart 2, Bangladesh has a lower waste percentage than all its competitors. Power along with Korea is the cheapest in Bangladesh amongst all the yarn producers. The country also has a very low depreciation rate and a fairly low interest rate as well, aided by a low conversion cost as well. However, the price of auxiliary materials in Bangladesh is the highest among all the yarn producers, as is the price of raw materials. Due to these two factors Bangladesh loses its comparative advantage over India and Pakistan.

Most of the raw cotton imported by Bangladesh comes from overseas. The country is not only handicapped by the import tariffs and shipping expenses, but India and Pakistan subsidize the raw cotton, which is sold locally, resulting in countries like Bangladesh paying more for the same cotton.

The outcome for the Bangladeshi spinning mills of such price differentials is that they obtain raw cotton of the same quality at prices, which are approximately 30% higher than the Indian mills, and Pakistani mills. In addition, Bangladesh’s spinning mills have to pay another 6 to 7% for handling, freight, and commission charges which put them in a disadvantageous situation. The new infrastructure development surcharge, or IDS, on all imports, which was stipulated in the 1997/98 fiscal year, added another 2.5% to the price of imported raw cotton.

The weaving and knitting sub-sectors will also need to expand at a rapid rate, as there is a large demand-supply gap in the country. With increased investment in the sub-sectors and modernized machinery, Bangladesh could profit greatly from larger and more competitive weaving and knitting sectors.

As the current dyeing facilities are mostly dependent on imported fabrics, they are expanding at a rate which is not dependent on any of the other sectors. However, as local grey becomes more competitive, and its production is increased, the dyeing, printing, and finishing sub-sector will also need to expand to accommodate for the increased supply.

The leakage from bonded warehouse facilities and smuggling of materials across borders also need to be monitored closely in order to assure the competitiveness of the local industry. The reduction of such problems will automatically improve the market position resulting in improved opportunities for the expansion of the Bangladeshi textile industry.

Conclusions
The importance of the textile industry in the economy of Bangladesh is very high. Furthermore, the industry is expected to be the catalyst in the industrialization of Bangladesh, and has been declared as a thrust sector by the government. However, the largest sub-sector of the industry, spinning, faces numerous problems, coupled with faulty government policies and a lack of fairness in competition from neighboring countries.

The explosive growth of the RMG industry in the country, however, has not been supported by the growth of backward linkage facilities. Because of the inferior quality and supply of local fabrics, which are also non-competitively priced, the RMG industry is almost completely dependent on imported fabric. As a result, the foreign exchange earning from the RMG industry is extremely low. This value addition could obviously be boosted if appropriate backward linkages were established in the textile industry.

Therefore, it is extremely important that some remedial measures are taken for the effective development of the industry and to achieve the targets set by the government for 2005 to meet the post-MFA challenges. When I began my research I was quite negative about the future of the industry seeing little opportunity for it being competitive in the post GATT period. However, over the course of my Senior Project investigations, I have realized that Bangladesh’s low labor cost, skill development potential, a presently expanding market, and favorable conversion cost can be used to turn the challenges of the quota-free market into a window of opportunity. In addition, most developed countries are turning away from industries like the textile industry and investing in other sectors, thus creating a vacuum in the market.

If the appropriate steps are taken to prepare the country for 2005, Bangladesh will not only maintain the current market, but also expand her global market share, increase the value added to its exports, and widen the range of products it produces. The main steps that must be taken to realize these goals are as follows:

1. To attain self-sufficiency in fabrics by ensuring that the RMG industry’s fabric needs can be met locally.
2. Ensure that the sub-sectors of the industry are better articulated resulting in a more synchronized development in the industry.
3. To modify governmental policies to benefit the textile industry, for example-to reduced the import duty on raw cotton and dyes and chemicals.
4. To create better facilities for training the workforce in the industry.

I have also developed some idea of the types of solutions necessary to overcome the problems faced by Bangladesh’s textile industry. In fact, many of these problems would be minimized if some of the government policies regarding textiles were modified. The bank charges and interests interest rates for loans are extremely high; as a result it is very difficult to gather the capital to set up and maintain any type of factory especially textile units which require much expensive equipment. A reduction of the interest rate would not only encourage entrepreneurs to expand their current facilities but should also attract new investors. The handling charges for shipping are also extremely high, which adds to the cost of the materials that are imported and exported.

There is currently a serious lack of coordination among the various government agencies that are connected in some way with the textile industry. As a result of this lack of specialization, duplication of work, and waste of time and resources, policies are often found to work against each other. Industries, which require immediate attention, are not given the necessary regard and fail to obtain speedy solutions to their problems.

In my opinion, the governmental institutions dealing with the textile industry is becoming increasingly disorganized as the industry in expanding. It is therefore necessary to enhance the institutional capabilities and the skills of these officers through proper training and more permanent office positions, as well as greater accountability.

The Bangladesh Tariff Commission, or BTC should place greater emphasis on textiles and should develop more of its policies around the industry. In order to do so, the BTC would benefit by making the following changes:

1. Hire more professionals to conduct extensive research on Bangladesh’s trade requirements
2. Impose stricter controls on import incentives such as bonded warehouse facilities to protect the market from leakage
3. Enhance the government’s representation with major trade organizations such as the WTO
4. Formulate policies and programs to enable local industries to become more efficient and competitive in the international market

Another area that needs to be examined is that of the government’s incentives. Currently, the numerous incentives provided by the government are modified on a yearly basis. As a result, a number of industrialists do not feel secure about them and at times are hesitant to expand their businesses in fear of policy changes exposing them to greater financial risks. Any required modifications should be made to these incentives after a careful study then they should then be made permanent or at least guaranteed for a longer and specified period. This would provide investors with a sense of security and encourage expansion.

The History of Jewellery in Textile Sector

History

The history of jewellery is a long one, with many different uses among different cultures. It is a fashion accessories. It has endured for thousands of years and has provided various insights into how ancient cultures worked.

Early history

The first signs of jewellery came from the Homo sapiens in Africa. Perforated beads made from snail shells have been found dating to 75,000 years ago at Blombos Cave. In Kenya, at Enkapune Ya Muto, beads made from perforated ostrich egg shells have been

dating to more than 40,000 years ago.

Outside of Africa, the Cro-Magnons had crude necklaces and bracelets of bone, teeth and stone hung on pieces of string or animal sinew, or pieces of carved bone used to secure clothing together. In some cases, jewellery had shell or mother-of-pearl pieces. In southern Russia, carved bracelets made of mammoth tusk have been found. The Venus of Hohle Fels features a perforation at the top, showing that it was intended to be worn as a pendant.

Around 7,000 years ago, the first sign of copper jewellery was seen.

Egypt

Amulet pendant (254 BCE) made from gold, lapis lazuli, turquoise and carnelian, 14 cm wide. An 18th dynasty pharaonic era princess’ crown

The first signs of established jewellery making in Ancient Egypt was around 3,000-5,000 years ago. The Egyptians preferred the luxury, rarity, and workability of gold over other metals. Predynastic Egypt had Jewellery in Egypt soon began to symbolize power and religious power in the community. Although it was worn by wealthy Egyptians in life, it was also worn by them in death, with jewellery commonly placed among grave goods.

In conjunction with gold jewellery, Egyptians used coloured glass in place of precious gems. Although the Egyptians had access to gemstones, they preferred the colours they could create in glass over the natural colours of stones. For nearly each gemstone, there was a glass formulation used by the Egyptians to mimic it. The colour of the jewellery was very important, as different colours meant different things; the Book of the Dead dictated that the necklace of Isis around a mummy’s neck must be red to satisfy Isis’s need for blood, while green jewellery meant new growth for crops and fertility. Although lapis lazuli and silver had to be imported from beyond the country’s borders, most other materials for jewellery were found in or near Egypt, for example in the Red Sea, where the Egyptians mined Cleopatra’s favourite gem, the emerald. Egyptian jewellery was predominantly made in large workshops attached to temples or palaces.

Bra or Brassire | Types of Bra | Sizes of Bra | A Brief history of the Bra or Brassiere

A brassiere  commonly referred to as a bra  is an undergarment that covers, supports, and elevates the breasts. Since the late 19th century, it has replaced the corset as the most widely accepted method for supporting breasts. A wide variety of bras are manufactured today.

Most bras are designed to be form-fitting and to lift the breasts off the chest wall if they sag and to restrain their movement. Bra designers and manufacturers originally produced bras that were purely functional

and gradually added elements to improve the design, but they have now largely shifted from functionality to fashion. Manufacturers’ standards and sizes vary widely, making it difficult for women to find a bra that fits. Bra-measurement procedures conflict with one another. Even professional bra fitters disagree on the correct size for the same woman. Women’s breasts vary widely in size and shape; most are asymmetric to a degree and can change from month to month depending on the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, or weight gain or loss. As a result, from 75-85% of women wear the incorrect bra size.

Bra

A Brief history of the Bra or Brassiere

The concept of covering or restraining the breasts dates back to 6,500 years ago in Greece. Minoan women on the island of Crete 4,500 years ago wore brassieres that revealed their bare breasts. A binding known as an apodesmos, or mastodeton was worn by Greek women for exercise in those city-states that supported women’s sports, e.g. Sparta. It is said that brassieres were invented by men so that women’s breasts would be smaller, and thus more like a man’s.

A bra-like device to give a symmetrical rotundity to the breasts was patented (nr 24,033) in 1859 by Henry S. Lesher of Brooklyn, New York; although it is recognizably a bra, the design looks uncomfortable by current standards.

In 1889 Herminie Cadolle of France invented the first modern bra, a two-piece undergarment called le bien-être (the well-being). The lower part was a corset for the waist, the upper supporting the breasts by means of shoulder straps. By 1905 the upper half was being sold separately as a soutien-gorge (“breast-supporter”, using a euphemism for breast that usually means “throat”), the name by which bras are still known in France. Cadolle’s business is still going strong.

In America, Mary Phelps Jacob was granted the first U.S. patent for the brassiere (nr 1,115,674), in 1913. She was aided in this work by her French maid, Marie. Her invention is most widely recognized as the predecessor to the modern bra. She sold the patent to the Warner Brothers Corset Company in Bridgeport, Connecticut, for $1,500 (or over $25,600 in today’s money). Warner eventually made an estimated $15 million off Caresse’s patent.

In 1922, Ida Rosenthal, a seamstress at the small New York City dress shop, Enid Frocks, along with shop owner Enid Bissett and husband William Rosenthal, changed the look of women’s fashion. The “boyish figure” then in style downplayed women’s natural curves through the use of a bandeaux brassiere. Their innovation, designed to make their dresses look better on the wearer, consisted of modifying the bandeaux bra to enhance and support women’s breasts. Hence, the name “Maidenform”. A later innovation is the development of sized brassieres. The company they founded became the Maidenform manufacturing company.

In 1943, Howard Hughes designed a cantilevered brassiere for Jane Russell for her appearance in the movie “The Outlaws”. The “lifts and separates” design went on to influence later commercial brassieres.

In 1960s, many women publicly discarded their bras as a symbol of female liberation as a form of protest; however, “burning the bra” was not a widespread practice.

The oft-repeated story that the brassiere was invented by a man named Otto Titzling (giving the humorous name tit-sling) is false. 

Sizes of Bra

There are several sizing systems in different countries. Most use the chest circumferences measurement system and cup sizes A-B-C+, but there are some significant differences. Most bras available usually come in 36 sizes,but bra labeling systems used around the world are at times misleading and confusing. Cup and band sizes vary around the world. For example, most women assume that a B cup on a 34 band is the same size as a B cup on a 36 band. In fact, bra cup size is relative to the band size, as the actual volume of a woman’s breast changes with the dimension of her chest. In countries that have adopted the European  dress-size standard, the torso is measured in centimeters and rounded to the nearest multiple of 5 cm.

A number of reports state the 80-85% of women are wearing the wrong bra size.A correctly fitted bra is determined by accurately calculating the chest size (or band size) and breast volume (the cup size). The band size can be adjusted slightly using the two or three alternate sets of fastening hooks and eyes in the clasp. The bra straps (over the shoulders) can usually also be adjusted slightly. 

Types of Bra
There is a wide range of brassiere styles available, designed to match different body types, situations, and outer garments. The degree of shaping and coverage of the breasts varies between styles, as do functionality, fashion, fabric, and color. Common types include backless, balconette, convertible, cupless, custom-fit, demi cup, front-fastening, full coverage, halter, longline, minimizing, padded, plunge, posture, push-up, racerback, sports/athletic, sheer, strapless, strapless-backless, support, t-shirt, underwire, wireless, sports bra, and invisible. Many designs combine one or more these styles. Breast support is built into some garments like camisoles, single-piece swimsuits, and tank tops, eliminating the need to wear a separate bra.

Modern Weft Stop Motion Device of Loom | Control Mechanism of Loom

Circular Knitting Machine | Different Parts of Circular Knitting Machine

The Knitting Action of the Single Needle Bar Raschel Machine

Different Textile Production Sectors in Bangladesh

The Production of Textiles:

The textile industry has seen the application of many new technologies over the centuries. However, the basic steps have remained the same. What is known as the textile industry includes all the steps necessary to transform fiber into fabric that is ready for stitching, sold either in the market or used in the RMG, or ready made garment, sector. These basic steps are spinning, weaving or knitting, and a combination of dyeing, printing and finishing.

RMG Industry in Bangladesh

Spinning:

The principal materials used in the spinning sub-sector are raw cotton and synthetic fibers such as viscose and polyester staple fibers. None of these materials, however, are produced in Bangladesh on a large enough scale to supply a significant part of the demand. The reasons for this are complex. 

Cotton needs to be grown in fields, and then ginned, which is the removal of seeds from cotton. At present, the cotton produced in Bangladesh is of an acceptable standard. However, the increased cultivation of cotton in this country is not feasible because the crop requires large amounts of land for a substantial yield. In overcrowded Bangladesh, farmers choose to grow rice over cotton. Locally grown cotton currently meets only 4-5% of the total requirement. The remaining 95% of the cotton needed must be imported at very high prices. The production of the synthetic/man-made fibers used in the textile industry requires fairly advanced technology and investment. 

Once the raw materials have been obtained, spinning is the first step in textile production. This is the process by which natural or synthetic fibers are cleaned and twisted into yarn. 

The raw materials first move through the blow room where all impurities are removed, for natural fibers only and the fibers are rolled into laps. The laps then go through a carding machine, where they are cleaned further and formed into slivers, thick and loosely spun yarn. In order to produce combed yarn, the fibers need to undergo further processing in the comber machine where the short strands are removed, and the remain processed into sliver. The sliver is then fed to the draw frame, and speed/roving frames where they are twisted to form what are called rovings. The rovings are finally placed in spinning frames where further twisting and drafting take place, and yarn is produced. The yarn is then spun around a bobbin or cone, using autoconers or cone winding/reeling machines, packed and marketed.

Fabric Forming :

Weaving and Knitting:
Next the yarn is made into grey, the early stage of fabric processed using looms or knitting machines. The name indicates that the material has no color at this point. These are fairly simple procedures and can even be done by hand, as they were for many centuries in cottage industries. Weaving produces cloth that has a rigid structure, such as the material used for making trousers, shirts, bed sheets, etc.

Prior to weaving the yarn is wrapped around beams and dipped in a size, an adhesive, which when dries gives the yarn a rigid and uniform structure. This yarn is then fed into the looms and called the warp. A thread of yarn, called the weft, passes between alternating warp yarn with the aid of a shuttle, air jet, or rapiers.

Knitting, however, can also be used to make grey. Instead of looms, circular knitting machines are used for knitting. These machines use needles fed with yarn that move in an up and down motion and knit interlocking arrangements of yarn. Knit fabric is much softer and more flexible than that produced on looms, and is commonly used for producing articles of casual wear such as tee shirts, and under garments.

Dyeing, Printing, Finishing:
The grey then undergoes the three steps of dyeing, printing, and finishing. I had the opportunity to learn about these processes in great depth on my various visits to textile mills. After the grey is inspected, it goes through a process called the batch method when it undergoes scouring, bleaching, and dyeing. Scouring is the treatment of grey in chemical solutions in order to remove the size, natural fats, waxes, proteins, and other impurities, and to make the fabric hydrophilic, which means it no longer repels water.

The bleaching process is next. It is essential in giving the cloth a clean white color. It is done using one of two different methods: bleaching with dilute hypochloride solution at room temperature, or by using hydrogen peroxide solution at elevated temperatures, usually 80 to 90 degrees Celsius. The latter method usually results in better and longer lasting whiteness, however is the more expensive of the two methods.

The scoured cloth is then dyed, and then printed on. Printing is done using perforated rollers that allows certain chemicals and colors to diffuse through the holes. After the printing has been completed, the fabric is washed, soaked in chemicals under elevated temperatures for color fixation, and then washed again.

Knitted fabrics are loaded on to a jigger machine, which performs the processes of scouring, bleaching, or dyeing. The fabric then moves on to a machine called either de-watering or de-twisting machine, which removes water from the fabric. The fabric then goes through a shrinkage tensionless drier which is designed for drying, shrinking, and relaxing the knitted fabrics.

The final process before the fabric is ready for stitching is compacting. During this step the fabric is steamed and ironed between a roller assembly. The fabric is then folded and is ready for marketing. 

Warping | Types o Warping | Sectional or Pattern Warping | High speed/ Beam/ Direct warping

Warping | Objects of Warping | Importance of Warping in Weaving

Winding | Objects of Winding | Importance of Winding in Weaving

Properties of a Good Sizing Material | Sizing Chemicals & Their Importance

Sizing is a complementary operation which is carried out on warps formed by spun yarns with insufficient tenacity or by continuous filament yarns with zero twist. In general, when sizing is necessary, the yarn is beam warped, therefore all beams corresponding to the beams are fed, as soon as warping is completed, to the sizing machine where they are assembled. Sizing consists of impregnating the yarn with particular substances which form on the yarn surface a film with the aim of improving yarn smoothness and tenacity during the subsequent weaving stage. Thanks to its improved tenacity and elasticity, the yarn can stand without problems the tensions and the rubbing caused by weaving.

Sizing Chemicals & Their Importance:
Film forming materials:
Starch is the oldest film forming material used in sizing of cellulosic fibers. It is also the most widely used in the world due to its low cost and ease of availability. In Pakistan, mostly maize starch is used, whereas, potato starch is more popular in Europe. 

PVA is the second largest film former used in sizing. It is mostly used on synthetic yarns such as polyester and poly/cotton blends. PVA coating is strong, abrasion resistant and can easily be desized in hot water. Its strength is greater than starch and also more flexible than most standard starches. PVA is less prone to setup in the size box compared to starches. PVA can form foam in the size box which is controlled with a deformer. PVA may be too strong for some sizing applications. In this case, some weaker film forming polymers such as starch are added to modify the mixture, which also reduces the cost, since PVA is more expensive than starch.

The most widely used size materials are starch and PVA. However, other size materials have been developed and used for specific purposes. Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) is produced from wood pulp and cotton lint and has good adhesion to cotton. 

Polyacrylic acid based sizes (polyacrylates and polyacrylamides) are used to size hydrophobic fibers and their blends such as nylon, acrylics, polyester, etc because of their good bonding.


Properties of a Good Sizing Material:

1. Environmentally safe.
2. Good film former.
3. Reasonable use economics.
4. Penetration of yarn bundle.
5. Elasticity.
6. Good film flexibility.
7. Good specific adhesion.
8. Good frictional properties.
9. Transparency.
10. Bacterial resistance.
11. Reasonable strength.
12. Controllable viscosity.
13. Water soluble or water dispersible.
14. Good hygroscopicity characteristics.
15. Uniformity.
16. Clean split at bust rods.
17. Improves weaving efficiencies.
18. No effect on drying.
19. Reasonable extensibility.
20. Recoverable and reusable
21. Low static propensity.
22. No skimming tendency.
23. Easily removed.
24. Easily prepared.
25. Lack of odor.
26. No beam blocking.
27. Compatible with other ingredients.
28. Good abrasion resistance.
29. Neutral pH.
30. High fold endurance.
31. Insensitive to high heat.
32. Low BOD.
33. No build up on dry cans.
34. Reduced shedding.
35. Rapid drying.
36. No re-deposition of size
37. Insensitive to changes in relative humidity.

Add-on Materials on Sizing Ingredients | Binders | Lubricants

Add-on materials:

In addition to a film former polymer various additives are added to a size mix. Additives may be included in the size mix depending on the particular weaving machine requirements or if a particular type finishing is required after the fabric is woven. A huge variety of additives are used. Most common of them are as follows:

Binders:  

There are a number of polymeric materials that can be used in sizing as binder materials. Binders are true film formers but are generally not used alone for sizing; some sizes are useful as both a primary size and as a binder. Binders are typically used to increase weave ability by promoting the adhesion of the primary film forming size to a specific fiber substrate while reducing the cohesion between sized yarns. By judicious selection of a binder, additional sizing advantages can be realized.Most commonly there are three types of binders used;

1. Acrylics:
2. Pearl corn starch
3. Modified starch
4. Starch derivatives.
5. Polyvinyl alcohol.
6. CMC.
7. Polyester resin binders.
8. Vinyl acetate resins.

Lubricants: 

Lubricant is almost always added to increase abrasion resistance of the yarn which is especially useful for rapiers and projectile machines. Lubricants with anti-sticking agents (lecithin) also prevent sticking of PVA to dry cans. Emulsifiers are added to the wax to improve desizablity. Paraffin or marine glycerides are added to harden the wax and better lubricate the yarns; however, if not removed properly during desizing some lubricants can cause problems in later operations.

Various other additives include humectants, anti-static and anti-foam agents, removable tints (for warp or style identification), preservatives (if the warp or the fabric is to be stored for long periods of time), penetrating agents (to allow the size to penetrate into tightly constructed styles), weighting agents (to make cloth heavier), anti-mildew.

Softeners such as lubricants, soaps and waxes are used to make the yarn sufficiently extensible, they also prevent cracking of size during weaving.

Humectants, such as urea, sugar and glycerin are used to retain moisture in the size product. Moisture makes the size film more flexible and less brittle.

Sizing | The Functions of the Sizing Operation | Sizing Variables

Sizing is a complementary operation which is carried out on warps formed by spun yarns with insufficient tenacity or by continuous filament yarns with zero twist. In general, when sizing is necessary, the yarn is beam warped, therefore all beams corresponding to the beams are fed, as soon as warping is completed, to the sizing machine where they are assembled. Sizing consists of impregnating the yarn with particular substances which form on the yarn surface a film with the aim of improving yarn smoothness and tenacity during the subsequent weaving stage

 

Thanks to its improved tenacity and elasticity, the yarn can stand without problems the tensions and the rubbing caused by weaving.

The functions of the sizing operation are:-
1. To lay in the protruding fibers in the body of the yarn and to cover weak places by encapsulating the yarn by a protective coating of the size film. The thickness of the size film coating should be optimized. Too thick a coating will be susceptible to easy size shed-off on the loom.

2. To increase the strength of the spun warp yarn without affecting its extensibility. This is achieved by allowing the penetration of the size into the yarn. The size in the yarn matrix will tend to bind all the fibers together. The increase in strength due to sizing is normally expected to be about 10 to 15% with respect to the strength of the unsized yarn. Excessive penetration of the size liquid into the core of the yarn is not desirable because it affects the flexibility of the yarn.

3. To make a weaver’s beam with the exact number of warp threads ready for weaving.

Sizing variables:
A good sizing depends on various factors. During sizing the following variables should be checked and controlled where necessary:

1. Viscosity of the size solution.·
2. Sizing machine speed.·
3. Size add-on levels.·
4. Concentration of the size mixture.
5. Volume of the size box.·
6. Threading arrangements.·
7. Condition of squeeze rolls.
8. Squeezing pressure.·
9. Hardness of squeeze rolls.
10. Diameter of squeeze rolls.
11. Number of size boxes.·
12. Yarn count and size box warp density per unit space.

Warp Knitting | Types of Warp Knitting | Uses of Warp Knitted Fabric

Warp knitting represents the fastest method of producing fabric from yarn. Warp knitting differs from weft knitting in that each needle loops its own thread. The needles produce parallel rows of loops simultaneously that are interlocked in a zigzag pattern. Fabric is produced in sheet or flat form using one or more sets of warp yarn. The yarns are fed from warp beams to a row of needles extending across the width of the machine.

Types of warp knitting:

 
1) Tricot Knit: Tricot fabric is soft, wrinkle resistant & has good drapability. Tricot knits are used for a wide verity of fabric weights & design. It makes light fabric weighting less than 4 ounce/square yard. Some examples of tricot fabric are sleepwear, boluses, dresses etc.

2) Raschel Knit: The Raschel knit ranks in importance of production with tricot but it makes varieties of products ranging from laces, power nets for foundation garments, swimwear to carpets. Raschel knitting is done with heavy yarns & usually has a complex lace-like pattern.

3) Crochet Knit: This basic stitch is used in hand crochet. This construction is used in a wide variety of fabrics ranging from nets & laces to bed spreads & carpets, various types of edgings or trimmings lace are also produced.

4) Milanese Knit: The milanese stitch produces a fabric very similar to tricot. It can be identified by the fine rib on the face & a diagonal pattern on the back. However, milanese fabric is superior to tricot in smoothness, elasticity, regularity of structure & friction resistance.

Uses of warp knitted fabric:

1. Inner wears (brassieres, panties, camisoles, girdles, sleepwear, hook & eye tape.)2. Apparel (sportswear lining, track suits, leisure wear and safety reflective vests.)
3. Household (mattress stitch-in fabrics, furnishing, laundry bags, mosquito nets & aquarium fish nets.)
4. Shoes (inner lining and inner sole lining in sports shoes andindustrial safety shoes.)
5. Automotive (car cushion, head rest lining, sun shades and lining formotorbike helmets.)
6. Industrial (pvc/pu backing, production masks, caps and gloves (forthe electronic industry.)

 

 

Projectile Weaving Machine | Mechanism and Working Principle of Projectile Weaving Machine

Main parts of Projectile Weaving Machine

1. Torsion bar A: As shown in fig it has splinted ends as seen in the fig one end is secured firmly at the clamping flange with provision for adjusting twisting angle. The twisting length of the torsion is 721 mm. It is diameter is 15, 17 or 19 mm depending upon the model. Larger the diameter higher the initial projectile speed. The angular twisting of torsion bar at commencement of picking is 28-30O.

2. Picking shaft B: The free end of the torsion bar is linked with the picking shaft through spines.

3. Picking lever C: The picking lever is clamped on the picking shaft.

4. Picking shoe D: The picking lever carries the picking shoe at its top end.

5. Picking shaft lever E: It is a rigid part of the picking shaft.

6. Toggle plates F: The toggle plates center at o carry a roller G and connected to the picking shaft lever E through a link H .They are covered at the bottom.

7. Picking cam I: It is mounted on a shaft J and rotated by bevel wheels K once every pick. It rotates in the direction of the arrow shown in fig. It carries a roller R after the nose part.

8. Oil break L: The shock of the picking is taken by the oil break.

A=Torsion bar , B=Picking shaft ,C=Picking lever , D=Picking shoe ,E=Picking shaft lever ,F=Toggle plate , G=Antifriction bowl , H=Link , I=Picking cam , J=Shaft ,K=Bevel wheels, L=Oil brake , P=Projectile ,R=Projectile guide.

       Fig: Picking mechanism on projectile weaving machine.

Working Principle:

Weft is withdrawn from the package through a tension device, weft tensionar, shuttle feeder, scissor, and weft end gripper. The picking arm has released the projectile which is shown in the guide teeth at the mid-shed position. At the receiving side the weft end gripper is positioned to grip the weft after reception. The shuttle break is shown in its operating position with the shuttle returner ready to push the projectile to the release and tucking position.Illustrates the torsion bar picking system of the machine. Strain energy is developed in the bar and released in such a way as to transfer the maximum possible strain energy to the projectile before it separates from the picker shoe. 

 

The torsion bar (A) has its splined ends rigidly constrained in an adjustable housing with provision for adjusting the maximum angle of twist and projectile initial velocity. The other end of the torsion rod is splined into the picking lever (C) which carries the picking shoe (D) at its extremity. The projectile (P) is illustrated in the shuttle lifter with the projectile spring opener. The bevel wheel (K) rotates the picking cam shaft (J) which carries the picking cam (I). The picking shaft lever (E) is rigidly connected to the torsion bar and through a short linkage to the toggle plate (F) center at anti friction bowl (G).The action of the cam is for the small roller to bear against the toggle rotate it anti clockwise about anti friction bowl (G), thus withdrawing the picking shoe to its rearmost position. In this position the center of the toggle arrangement are in line and the torsion bar is twisted to its predetermined angle. 

 

The nose of the picking cam then bears against the roller carried between the toggle plates and moves the central pivot of the toggle system off line center, thus permitting the strain energy in the rod to be transmitted instantaneously to the projectile. The projectile separates from the shoe after 6.4 cm travel in 0.007 s as a velocity of about24.4 m/s after being subjected to a maximum acceleration of about 6700 m/s2 at a point 1.5 cm inboard of the rest position. The residual energy in the picking system, some 62% of the whole is absorbed in the hydrolic buffer the body and plunger of which are shown at (L).

Knit Stitch Formation Technique | Tuck Stitch formation | Miss Stitch Formation

Primary Motions of Weaving Loom Mechanism | Shedding Mechanism | Picking Mechanism | Beating Mechanism

Primary Motions:
These are fundamental or essential mechanisms. Without these mechanisms, it is practically impossible to produce a fabric. It is for this reason that these mechanisms are called ‘primary’ mechanisms. The primary mechanisms are three in number.
a. Shedding mechanism
b. Picking mechanism
c. Beat-up mechanism

(a) Shedding Mechanism
The shedding mechanism separates the warp threads into two layers or divisions to form a tunnel known as ‘shed’. The shed provides room for passage of the shuttle. A shed may be formed by means of tappets, dobby and jacquard.

Fig: Shedding motions.

 

Types of Tappet Shedding Mechanism:
Generally there are two types of shedding
1. Negative tappet shedding
2. Positive tappet shedding

Negative Tappet Shedding:
In a tappet shedding mechanism, if the tappet controls only one movement, either an upward or downward movement of the healed shafts, then the shedding is known as “negative tappet shedding”. The healed shafts are returned by some external devices like springs, dead weights, rollers, etc.

Positive Tappet Shedding:
In a tappet shedding mechanism, if the tappet controls both upward and downward movements of the healed shafts, then the shedding is known as positive tappet shedding.

(b) Picking Mechanism
The picking mechanism passes weft thread from one selvedge of the fabric to the other through the shed by means of a shuttle, a projectile, a rapier, a needle, an air-jet or a water-jet. The inserted weft thread is known as “pick”.

Picture: Picking Mechanism

 

(C) Beat-up Mechanism
The beat-up mechanism beats or pushes the newly inserted length of weft thread (pick) into the already woven fabric at a point known as “fell of the cloth”. These three mechanisms namely shedding, picking and then beat-up are done in sequence. 

Picture: Beating mechanism with sley

Motions of Loom | Weaving Loom Motion | Primary Motions of Loom | Secondary Motions of Loom | Tertiary Motions of Loom

In order to interlace wrap and weft threads to produce a fabric, the following motions are necessary on any type of loom:
1. Primary motions
2. Secondary motions
3. Tertiary motions

1. Primary Motions:
These are fundamental or essential mechanisms. Without these mechanisms, it is practically impossible to produce a fabric. It is for this reason that these mechanisms are called ‘primary’ mechanisms. The primary mechanisms are three in number.

a. Shedding mechanism
b. Picking mechanism
c. Beat-up mechanism

2. Secondary Motions:

These mechanisms are next in importance to the primary mechanisms. If weaving is to be continuous, these mechanisms are essential. So they are called the ‘secondary’ mechanisms. They are:

1. Take-up motion
2. Let-off motion

3. Tertiary Motions:

To get high productivity and good quality of fabric, additional mechanisms, called auxiliary mechanisms, are added to a loom. The auxiliary mechanisms are useful but not absolutely essential. This is why they are called the ‘auxiliary’ mechanisms. These are listed below.
a. Weft stop motion
b. Warp stop motion
c. Warp protector mechanism
d. Weft replenishment / Warp mixing motion
e. Cutter
f. Temples
g. Brake
h. Selvedge

Spandex Fiber | Physical and Chemical Properties of Spandex Fiber

Spandex Fiber:

Spandex, Lycra or elastane is a synthetic fiber known for its exceptional elasticity. It is made up of a long chain polymer called polyurethane, which is produced by reacting a polyester with a diisocyanate. Spandex gained interest quickly due to it’s superiority to the strength in durability of rubber. Spandex also has a better resistance to dry heat & oil, in comparison to rubber. The level of comfort and wicking ability found in Spandex are unparalleled, and do not exist in such high amount with any other fabric

Spandex Fiber

Spandex is being used in a continually widening array of clothing articles, including woven and knits, and synthetics and natural fibers.

Physical Properties of Spandex Fiber:
1. Cross section- Spandex filaments are extruded usually from circular orifices, but the evaporation of solvent or the effects of drying may produce non-circular cross-sectional shapes. This may take various forms. In the multi-filament yarns, individual filaments are often fused together in places. The number of filaments in a yarn may be as few as 12 or as many as 50;the linear density of filaments ranges from 0.1 to 3 tex (g/km).

2. Density: The density of spandex filaments ranges from 1.15 to 1.32 g/cc, the fibres lower density being based on polyesters.

3. Moisture regain: The moisture of fibres from which the surface finish has been removed lies between 0.8 & 1.2%

4. Length: It can be of any length. May be used as filament or staple fibre

5. Colour: It has white or nearly white colour.

6. Luster : It has usually dull luster.

7. Strength: Low strength compared to most other synthetic fiber.

8. Elasticity: Elastic properties are excellent. This is the outstanding characteristic of the fibre.

9. Heat: The heat resistance varies considerably amongst the different degrades over 300 F.

10. Flammability: It Burn slowly.

11. Electrical conductivity: It has Low electrical conductivity.

12. Breaking tenacity: 0.6 to 0.9grams/denier.

Chemical Properties of Spandex Fiber:
1. Acid: Good resistance to most of acids unless exposure is over 24 hours.

2. Alkalies: Good resistance to most of the alkalies, but some types of alkalies may damage the fibre.

3. Organic solvents: Offer resistance to dry cleaning solvents.

4. Bleaches: Can be degreaded by sodium hypochloride. chlorine bleach should not be used.

5. Dyeing: A full range of coloures is available. Some types are more difficult to dye than others.

Principle of Negative Tappet Shedding Mechanism

Principle

A tappet is given a rotary motion so that it depresses a follower and a lever, known respectively as the anti-friction bowl and the treadle arrangement, by means of which the heald shaft is operated.

Construction
Figure shows a negative tappet shedding mechanism. A pair of tappets A and B are fixed to the bottom shaft C at 180 degrees to each other. Two treadle levers D and E are connected to the loom back-rail by a bracket F.

The bracket acts as a fulcrum for the levers. The two treadles have teeth to carry the lamb rods G and H respectively. Two heald shafts J and K are connected to the lamb rods. A top reversing roller shaft Q carries two rollers of different diameters. The roller of small diameter N is connected to a leather strap L to which the front heald shaft J is connected. The roller P of large diameter is connected to a leather strap M to which the back heald shaft K is connected. The tappets A and B touch the anti-friction bowls or followers R and S respectively, which are fixed to the treadle levers.

Figure : Negative tappet shedding mechanism

The heald shafts have heald eyes T and U through which the war p threads pass X is the war p sheet and Y is the cloth. The odd ends are passed through one heald shaft while the even ends are passed through the other heald shaft.

Working Process:
When the bottom shaft is rotated in the clockwise direction as shown in the figure, the tappets are also rotated. The tappet will depress the anti-friction bowl and the treadle. Being fulcrumed at one end, the front portion of the treadle moves down. This action is transferred to the lamb rod, the heald shaft and the leather strap. So one heald shaft is lowered and the threads connected to this heald shaft are lowered and form the bottom layer of the shed.

The leather straps attached to the reversing rollers are connected in opposite directions, i.e. when leather strap is pulled down, it is unwound from its roller. The shaft therefore rotates in the clockwise direction and the other leather strap is wound on to its roller. The heald shaft is raised and therefore the lamb rod and treadle lever are also raised. The threads connected to the heald shaft are also raised and form the top layer of the shed.

For the next shed, the other tappet works with the other set of bowl, treadle, lamb rod, heald shaft, strap and roller and the other heald shaft is lowered. The first heald shaft is raised by the top reversing rollers, and the positions of the healds shafts are thus interchanged. Thus, for one rotation of the bottom shaft, two sheds are formed.

In this type of tappet shedding therefore, one tappet depresses the concerned treadle and the corresponding heald shaft is lowered. But the other heald shaft is raised by means of the top reversing rollers. So this type of shedding mechanism is known as “negative tappet shedding mechanism”

Timings and Settings:

1. Turn the crank to the top centre position.
2. Fix the anti-friction bowls to the treadle levers; they should move freely in the slots.
3. Fix the treadle levers with a bracket to the back rail of the loom.
4. Set the grid and grid bracket to the front rail of the loom in the slots of the grid.
5. Make sure that the tappet with the lower throw is fixed to the bottom shaft at the starting handle side.
6. Fix the top reversing rollers to the top reversing roller shaft to be equidistant from the ends and at the same time ensure that the connecting screws of the rollers are symmetrical about the central axis of the shaft when the heald shafts are at the same level. The roller of smaller diameter is always connected to front heald shaft.
7. The heald shafts are connected to the top reversing rollers by means of cords and leather straps. The leather straps are connected to the rollers, such that when one of them winds on its roller the other strap unwinds from its roller and vice versa.
8. Lamb rods are connected to the heald shafts by cords.
9. Adjust the tappets on the bottom shaft and make sure of the following points :

• The tappet with a bigger throw should be connected to the back heald shaft.
• The bowls should have perfect contact with the tappet surfaces.
• The treadles should be at the same level and parallel to each other at the top centre position.

Heald shafts : The hook of the lamb rod of the front heald shaft should be connected to the first notch of the treadle lever while that of the back heald shaft should be connected to the third notch. If the depth of shed is altered, the connections of the hooks to the treadle levers can be changed.

Points to be Observed:

1. Turn the crank shaft through two revolutions and make sure that the bowls are always in contact with the tappets.
2. The heald shafts should not touch the side frames or the sley.
3. Turn the crank shaft to the bottom centre and check the size of shed. The bottom line of warp sheet or the heald eyes of the lowered heald shaft should have a clearance of 1 mm from the race board and the top.

 

The Current Position of the Textile Industry in Bangladesh

Today, the textile industry of Bangladesh can be divided into the three main categories: the public sector, handloom sector, and the organized private sector. Each of these sectors has its advantages and disadvantages. Currently, the organized private sector dominates, and is also expanding at the fastest rate.

RMG Industry in Bangladesh

Public Sector
The public sector is that portion of the industry controlled by organizations that are part of the government. The factories in the public sector enjoy certain privileges such as government funding.

However, in Bangladesh, factories in the public sector are not well supervised. There are frequent changes in officers, and many of these officials do not have a personal interest in the factory for which they are responsible. In addition, the equipment in this sector is not well maintained, as much of the money allocated for this purpose is not spent as planned, but is wasted through corruption and poor accounting.

Handloom Sector
The rural group of textile producers includes operators of handlooms and a number of organizations which employ rural women, such as BRAC, or the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee. The Handloom industry provides employment for a large segment of the population of Bangladesh. The industry also supplies a large portion of the fabric required by the local market. Factories in this sector are usually well looked after by the owners and are quite productive, considering the equipment available. However, the inferiority of their machinery, mostly due to their narrow width, means that the fabric production is slow, and usually falls short of the quality needed for export.

Private Sector
The most productive of the three categories is the private sector. This, as the term suggests, is made up of those factories owned by companies or entrepreneurs. Since the owners of such factories are directly affected by their performance, they take an active part in planning, decision making, and management. Most of these factories also have machinery that is superior to those in the two other sectors because the owners are well aware of the connection between their equipment and their profits.

Demand Supply Gap
The phenomenal expansion of the RMG industry in Bangladesh and the dramatic increase in the population in addition to an increased standard of living in the country has led to a large demand-supply gap as shown by the following table. Only 21% of the total demand for yarn is met locally in Bangladesh. The figures for grey are not much better as only 28% of the total demand is met locally. The finishing sub-sector currently is able to process all of the locally produced grey, but will need to expand at as with the weaving and knitting sub-sectors.

All sectors of the textile industry face many of the same challenges. These problems include lack of power, obsolete technology, low capacity utilization, lack of machinery maintenance, a workforce that is not adequately trained, problems with labor unrest and militancy, political unrest causing disruption such as hartals, and a lack of working capital. The problems with electricity was evident to me on my visit to the Rahim Textile Mills; I was told that it is more efficient to power the factory continuously by a generator, instead of letting production be hampered by power failures. In addition, each of the sub-sectors face various other problems.

The Spinning Sub-Sector
Problems related to spinning have an extremely negative impact on the textile industry. The production capacity of the spinning sub-sector is estimated at approximately 183 million kg per year. However, only 125.16 kg, or 67.3% was produced in 1997-98.

One of the main causes of this under production in the spinning sub-sector is the fact that approximately 38% of the spinning mills in the country are more than twenty-five years old and therefore are not able to produce as much yarn as their initial capacity. The principal reason behind the machinery being so outdated and poorly maintained is the high import duty on textile machinery and their spare parts. Many have not been maintained or repaired as they should have been because in addition to the high cost of the spare parts, there is a shortage of technicians in this field, resulting in both very expensive and sub-standard repairs. Other reasons for the low production figures include frequent power failures, a shortage of raw materials, a high import duty on raw materials used for local consumption, and a high percentage of wastage.

The labor productivity in the spinning sub-sector is also lower than that in competing countries. The output of labor in the industry is about 0.65 kg per man-hour. A recent World Bank survey indicated that the number of spindles installed in Bangladeshi spinning mills could produce twice as much yarn while using only 10% of the labor force. Obviously, obsolete machinery is having an extremely negative impact on Bangladesh’s textile industry.

The Weaving Sub-Sector
The shortage in supply from the spinning sub-sector also has a negative impact on the amount of grey produced. The unmet demand for yarn is filled by importing 3.15 billion meters of grey annually. In order to import grey, the subsequent sectors have to invest more in transportation, import taxes, etc., resulting in a more expensive end product.

The weaving sub-sector is plagued by a lack of organization and coordination. There are many small-scale manufacturers dispersed all over the country, which results in replication and a lack of specialization. Instead of working in organized groups, many of the small producers try to do everything on their own, leading to an end product of inferior quality.

The Handloom Sub-Sector
The handloom industry, traditionally an important part of the textile industry in Bangladesh, is still responsible for a very high percentage of the nation’s economy. It is the second largest source of rural employment after agriculture. Even without being dependent on electricity, there are numerous problems faced by the handloom industry.

Many of the weavers cannot work steadily due to the irregular supply of the yarn, dyes, and chemicals they require. The primary reason for this is that many of these producers are located in places with poor access to transportation. Most of these weavers obtain their raw materials from brokers at their local levels. These brokers gather money from many small scale manufacturers and travel to the urban centers to purchase the required materials, which they then take back to the weavers. Unfortunately, not all of these brokers are very experienced and some are dishonest. Those in the handloom industry are very vulnerable; even a minor problem such as a heavy rainfall might prevent them from obtaining their raw materials or selling their finished product.

Most export oriented garment factories reject a large quantity of the grey produced by the rural handlooms in Bangladesh. When I examined fabrics of similar type and patterns, one of which was produced using handlooms, and the other on powerlooms, the superiority in uniformity and quality of the cloth produced using the powerlooms was obvious. In addition, handlooms also have a narrower width than powerlooms, and usually cannot produce fast enough to meet the deadlines set by export oriented customers.

Knitting/Hosiery
The hosiery industry produces different types of products such as undergarments, socks, stockings, and other soft apparel. These factories were originally designed for the local market, but recent improvements in quality have propelled them to enter the export market and knitting has become another rapidly growing textile sub-sector. The Knitting and Hosiery sub-sector is faced with the lack of modern facilities needed for producing quality fabric. There is also a shortage of raw materials in the sub-sector. However, the factor that has the most negative impact on the industry is the lack of working capital.

Even though the sub-sector has to overcome some obstacles, it has been extremely successful recently. Currently the demand for knit grey can be met locally. The quality of the local knit grey is also competitive as most of the knitting units have been installed recently and the machinery is not obsolete.

Dyeing, Printing, and Finishing
Dyeing, printing, and finishing, the final steps in the textile industry, are also the most complicated processes. It is the quality of this work that determines the appearance of the fabric and thus its marketability. In order to be competitive in the future, this sub-sector of the textile industry will need to expand at the same rate as the weaving sub-sector, in order to make the country self-sufficient in grey production.

The dyeing, printing, and finishing sub-sector has improved dramatically over the last five years. However, due to a lack of modern equipment and facilities, the majority of dyeing, printing, and finishing units are still unable to meet the standard of quality demanded by the export-oriented RMG industries, or the export market. Those that are producing fabric suitable for export are heavily dependent on imported grey. As is the case with most imported goods, they face a number of restrictions, such as import taxes, transportation, and various others. However, the successful expansion of the knitting sub-sector has made the country self-sufficient in all knit grey.

The 2005 Challenge
In the year 2005, some of the international policies regarding the export of textiles and garments will change, which may present the Bangladeshi textile industry the greatest challenges it has had to face so far. There is much speculation at present about the situation of the RMG exporters in the post-MFA period, when the World Trade Organization, or WTO, instead of GATT will control the sector. Under the WTO all quotas will be removed, resulting in a free market worldwide. 

Bangladesh’s garment and textile manufacturers will have to face steep competition from countries such as India, Pakistan, China, and Thailand, from whom the country now imports fabric to meet the demands of its RMG sector. When the WTO free market is established, all these countries will be able to expand their RMG exports, now limited by quotas. As a result, these countries will be able to utilize more of their locally produced yarn and fabrics internally, resulting in the rise of prices for these in the export market, putting pressure on the industries of countries such as Bangladesh.

The Government
To aid the expansion of the textile industry in Bangladesh, the government is currently providing numerous incentives.

1) Bonded warehouse facilities
These facilities allow export-oriented factories to import their raw materials duty free. However, the bonded warehouses privileges have not been monitored closely enough, which has resulted in them being abused. The materials imported duty free to be used for producing garments intended for export are sometimes released into the local market. The leakage of these inexpensive items into the local market cause unfair competition for local producers.

2) Duty Exemption Drawback Organization, or DEDO
Factories which do not take advantage of the bonded warehouse facilities and import their raw materials independently can claim the duty they paid under the Duty Exemption Drawback Organization, or DEDO. Provided that the finished goods are being exported. This system is mostly applicable for the dyeing sub-sector of the textile industry.

3) 25% export cash incentive
For producers who do not use their DEDO or the bonded warehouse privilege, and utilize local materials. These producers obtain a 25% cash compensation from the government for the items they export.

4) Tax holiday - Five to nine years of tax exemption for new factories.

5) Duty free importation of raw materials of export in the RMG.

6) Avoidance of double taxation for joint venture projects.

7) Income tax exemption for up to three years for foreign technicians.

8) Duty free import of capital machinery.

Other steps are also being taken. The Government of Bangladesh has devised a Textile Policy designed to make the country competitive in the WTO free market by 2005. Its main objective is for the country to achieve self-sufficiency in yarn and fabrics to meet the needs of the RMG industry through backward linkages and by encouraging investments by private investors.

The Textile Policy makes some of the following suggestions in order to develop the sub-sectors of the industry in a harmonious manner.

• Closer monitoring of leakage in the market
• Appoint an advisory committee to represent the industry to the government
• Zmprovement of research and computer technology
• All sectors of the industry will be Modernized
• Rehabilitated as much as possible
• Tariffs will be rationalized
• Spinning
• 116 new spinning mills each having the capacity of 25,000 spindles will be established immediately
• Weaving
• 223 modern weaving units each with an annual capacity of producing ten million meters will be set up
• Handloom
• Supervised credit system for long term loans will be established
• Necessary training will be provided
• Various means of encouragement and exposure will be established such as exhibitions and competitions
• Dyeing, Printing, and Finishing - new units will be set up with appropriate technology
• Bonded warehouse will be provided until local grey production can meet the quality and quantity required by the sub-sector
• Duty on dyes and chemicals will be withdrawn 

However, from my analysis of the Textile Policy, it appeared to be very theoretical and failed to address a number of issues.

1. The policy calls for the establishment of many new factories and projects, but does not provide a scheme for financing them. 

2. The lack of training and technology is mentioned, but no steps are suggested for enhancing the skills of the workforce and engineers.

3. No suggestions are made for setting up institutions to conduct the technical and marketing research needed to upgrade the quality of Bangladeshi products to make them more appealing in the international market.

4. The need for the expansion of the Bangladesh’s infrastructure such as ­ road, port, and railway capacities to accommodate increased imports and exports is not mentioned.

5. The great problems arising from the shortage of land on which to build the necessary factories is also not considered.

6. The policy states that environmental pollution is negligible, but does not go further into the matter. However, it was very obvious to me on one of my factory visits that affluent treatment and disposal in the industry is a very serious problem.

7. The need for more power is mentioned, but no plans have been devised on how the expansion will be undertaken.